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Travel Ephesus |
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Around Ephesus |
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Pergamum (Pergamon) |
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 Pergamum
was an ancient city founded by colonists on the
Aegean coast of Anatolia at the site of the present-day
city of Bergama. It was on a tributary of the
Bakircay (Caicus River), enclosed by high mountains.
Fertile, self-contained and easily defended, it
provided the perfect setting for the maintenance of
a city state.
In the era following the death of Alexander the
Great (323 BC), Lysimachus, one of Alexander’s
generals, chose Pergamum as the depository for his
vast wealth, placing here 9,000 talents of gold
under the guardianship of his lieutenant,
Philetaerus. Upon Lysimachus’s death, Philetaerus
used this fortune and founded the independent
dynasty of the Attalid Kings. Pergamum later became
the capital of a flourishing Hellenistic kingdom and
one of the principal centers of Hellenistic
civilization. Under Kings Attalus I and Eumenes II,
Pergamum reached the height of its independent
powers. At the same time, however, it began to look
to Rome for alliance against the warring Hellenistic
rulers. After signalizing himself as a friend of
Rome, Attalus I was awarded the Seleucid dominions,
making Pergamum a powerful kingdom, comprising of
Mysia, Lydia, Caria, Pamphylia and Phrygia. In
addition to extending the kingdom, Attalus I adorned
his capital with architectural splendors. Eumenes II
also brought the city to the climax of its cultural
prominence. During the reigns of these two prominent
kings, the city so flourished that it could only be
compared to Antioch and Alexandria.
King Attalus III bequeathed (133 BC) his domains to the Romans, under
whom the city retained its position as the
preeminent artistic and intellectual center of
Anatolia but declined in political and economic
importance.
The city went through the Arab, Byzantine and finally the Turkish period
in the 14C.
Pergamum attained a high culture in the Hellenistic era, boasting an
outstanding library that rivaled in importance that
of Alexandria, a famous school of sculpture and
excellent public buildings and monuments of which
the Zeus Altar is the best example.
In the Roman period, Pergamum played an important role in the early
history of Christianity. It was also numbered among
the Seven Churches of Revelation.
Pergamum, One of the Seven Churches of Revelation
(Revelation 2:12-17)
(12) "Write this letter to the leader of the church
in Pergamos:
"This message is from him who wields the sharp and double-bladed sword.
(13) I am fully aware that you live in the city
where Satan’s throne is, at the center of satanic
worship; and yet you have remained loyal to me and
refused to deny me, even when Antipas, my faithful
witness, was martyred among you by Satan’s devotees.
(14) "And yet I have a few things against you. You tolerate some among
you who do as Balaam did when he taught Balak how to
ruin the people of Israel by involving them in
sexual sin and encouraging them to go to idol
feasts. (15) Yes, you have some of these very same
followers of Balaam among you!
(16) "Change your mind and attitude, or else I will come to you suddenly
and fight against them with the sword of my mouth.
(17) "Let everyone who can hear, listen to what the Spirit is saying to
the churches: Every one who is victorious shall eat
of the hidden manna, the secret nourishment from
heaven; and I will give to each a white stone and on
the stone will be engraved a new name that no one
else knows except the one receiving it.
Archeological Evidence
A young German engineer Carl Humann, who was engaged in building a road
in Bergama in 1875 was told that a great quantity of
loose stone was available among the ruins at the top
of the hill behind the city. That which started as
the need for road construction resulted in Humann’s
archeological studies and the uncovering of many
beautiful pieces including the Zeus Altar and
Gateway to the Sanctuary of Athena which were
subsequently taken to the Pergamum Museum in Berlin.
Acropolis
The function of the acropolis in Pergamum was never the same as the
function of the acropolis in Athens. In Athens
everything was focused on religion, whereas in
Pergamum it was on social and cultural activities,
or in other words, daily life. As a result of this
contrast, major buildings in Pergamum were reserved
for public use in daily life. Even in the temples,
religion was of secondary importance. Buildings had
large areas for the public where they could meet,
walk or join in social affairs. Pergamum was the
first city to react against functional urbanism of
Hippodamus preferring ornamental urbanism.
Pergamenes agreed that functionalism was necessary,
but that aesthetics were to be given even more
consideration. The buildings of the Acropolis were
designed to be seen from below and to impress those
viewing the city from the valley.
Except for the Trajan Temple all the buildings were built in the
Hellenistic period during which constructions were
made of andesite and very rarely in marble.
Heroon, in general, is a shrine dedicated to a deified hero. The Heroon
in the Acropolis of Pergamum was the imperial cult
or the shrine in which kings of Pergamum, especially
Attalus I and Eumenes II, were worshipped.
It was a peristyle building made of andesite from
the Hellenistic period.
The Sanctuary of Athena was entered through a propylon which was built by
Eumenes II. As written in its inscription, it was
dedicated to victory-bringing Athena by King
Eumenes. The entrance opens into a courtyard
surrounded by three stoas of the Doric order. This
also dates from the same period. At the corner near
the theater was the Athena Temple in Doric order
which was built earlier, in the 3C BC. It was built
of andesite and stood on a crepidoma with two steps.
The Library of Pergamum, built by Eumenes II, was the second of the three
famous ancient libraries. It contained 200,000
volumes. A century later Mark Antony gave them to
Cleopatra as a wedding present to be added to the
collection of the library in Alexandria. The library
building was next to the north stoa of the Athena
Sanctuary. Most probably, the second floor of the
stoa was at the same level with the first floor of
the library. It had a large reading hall with many
shelves all around, leaving an empty space between
walls and shelves for the circulation of air to
prevent humidity. Manuscripts were written on
parchment then rolled or folded and put on shelves.
When the Egyptians prohibited the export of papyrus, the King of Pergamum
ordered that a new material be found. The new
discovery was "parchment", a fine material from
sheep or goat skin, highly polished with pumice
stone and slit into sheets. Therefore the name of
Pergamum has been perpetuated and seen as synonymous
with the word "parchment".
The Temple of Trajan was a 2C AD temple in Corinthian order, dedicated to
Trajan, built by his successor Hadrian. Both
emperors were worshipped there. The temple was built
of marble, probably on the site of a previous
Hellenistic building. Before the construction, the
area was leveled off by using a successful arched
and vaulted substructure. The temple is flanked by
stoas on three sides, the one at the back being
higher than the others. It was in Corinthian order
to have a peripteros plan, with 9 by 6 columns.
It is said that the Theater in the acropolis of Pergamum is the steepest
raked Hellenistic theater in the world. The cavea of
the theater which consists of 80 rows of seats is
divided into three sections by two diazomas. The
capacity was 10,000 people. The construction
material is andesite. Because it was originally a
Hellenistic theater, there was not a permanent stage
building and people sitting on the cavea could see
outside and beyond the playing area. In the
Hellenistic period, performances were held in a
festive atmosphere and took a long time. People
spent a lot of time in the theater, usually the
minimum of a full day. Therefore, they never wanted
to block their view of outside and the stage
building, being made of wood, was portable. Square
holes at the back of the orchestra were for the
portable stage building. The theater was also used
during the Roman period with some alterations.
The finest altar ever built can be accepted as the Zeus Altar at
Pergamum, of about 180 BC, which stands in its own
precinct but, most unusually, without a temple. The
altar, a marble offering-table, stood on an enormous
stone plinth, which also supported the double
colonnade of Ionic columns enclosing it on three
sides. On the fourth side it was approached by a
fine stairway, nearly 20 m / 65 ft wide.
Much of the structure and almost all of the friezes are now in Berlin.
Decorated with vigorous friezes of life-size figures
depicting a battle between gods and giants, its
contemporary context is probably King Eumenes II’s
celebration of his recent victories over the Gauls
in Pontus and Bithynia. If this is so, then the
context incorporates within its apparently
straightforward mythology the King’s assertion of
his own triumphant role as the defender of
traditions against barbarianism.
Kizil Avlu (The Red Court)
This building was a 2C AD temple dedicated to Egyptian gods and goddesses
from the time of the Emperor Hadrian. In the
Byzantine period it was converted into a basilica.
Because of the red bricks used in the construction
and its court-like area, it was named the Red Court.
Asclepieum
Asclepieum was a sanctuary and a healing center built in the name of the
god of healing, Asclepius. It was similar to the one
in Epidauros in Greece. Although this place was set
up in the 4C BC, it had its peak in the Roman
period.
Asclepius, son of Apollo, the god of healing, was a famous physician. His
mother, Coronis, a princess of Thessaly, died when
he was an infant. Apollo entrusted the child’s
education to Chiron, a centaur, who taught Asclepius
the healing arts. Asclepius, when grown, became so
skilled in surgery and the use of medicinal plants
that he could even restore the dead back to life.
Hades, ruler of the dead, became alarmed at this and
complained to Zeus, who killed Asclepius with a
thunderbolt. The healing center, Asclepieum, had
been something very similar to a modern natural
healing clinic. Patients were given exercises,
drugs, herbal remedies, or could take the honey
cure, drink the waters of the spring or be treated
by suggestion. They could walk among the trees and
be calmed by the scent of pine. Over the gate had
been inscribed the words: "In the name of the Gods,
Death is forbidden to enter". Snakes were sacred to
Asclepius because of their power to renew
themselves. That is why there was a relief of snakes
at the entrance to the sacred area of the medical
center symbolizing health. Among the famous
physicians of the Asclepieum was Galen.
Galen (c.129-199 AD)
Galen was the most outstanding physician of antiquity after Hippocrates.
His anatomical studies on animals and observations
of how the human body functions dominated medical
theory and practice for 1400 years. Galen was born
in Pergamum. A shrine to the healing god Asclepius
was located in Pergamum and there young Galen
observed how the medical techniques of the time were
used to treat the ill or wounded. He received his
formal medical training in nearby Smyrna and then
traveled widely, gaining more medical knowledge.
Galen dissected many animals, particularly goats, pigs and monkeys, to
demonstrate how different muscles are controlled at
different levels of the spinal cord. He also showed
that the brain controls the voice. Galen showed that
arteries carry blood, disproving the 400-year-old
belief that arteries carry air. Galen was also
highly praised in his time as a philosopher. He
closely followed the view of the philosopher
Aristotle that nothing in nature is superfluous.
Galen’s principal contribution to philosophic
thought was the concept that God’s purposes can be
understood by examining nature. Galen’s observations
in anatomy remained his most enduring contribution.
His medical writings were translated by 9C Arab
scholars.
The Site
The Colonnaded Road connected Asclepieum to the city. Originally it was
820 m / 2,700 ft. Today only a small part of this
road is visible. The Propylon was located at the end
of the colonnaded road and dates from 2C AD. It had
12 steps and opened into a large courtyard which was
surrounded by stoas on three sides. It had beautiful
acroteriums one of which can be seen in the Bergama
museum. Stoas originally had Ionic capitals but
after an earthquake in the 2C AD, some Corinthian
capitals were also used. The Library was for both
educational and entertainment purposes with many
medical books for the physicians and other books for
use by the patients.
The Theater is a small building in Roman style with a capacity of 3,500
people. It was mainly used for performances to
entertain the patients when not receiving treatment.
The Sacred Fountain provided water believed to have
had healing power. Sleeping rooms were used to make
the patients sleep and analyze their dreams. The
Tunnel is a vaulted subterranean passageway. It is
80 m / 262 ft long. Under the floor ran water which
provided relaxing sounds. On the ceiling there are
12 windows to provide sunlight inside the tunnel.
The Round Treatment Center was a two-storied
building with six apsidal sections.
Today only the lower floor remains. The walls and the floor were covered
with marble and the roof was made of wood. Water
coming through the tunnel, recesses for washing and
the sun-terrace show that this room was also used
for the treatment of patients. The Temple of
Asclepius was erected by the Consul of the time in
the 2C AD. The main part of the temple was
cylindrical and covered by a dome. The floor and the
walls were decorated with marble mosaics. There were
many statues of gods and deities related to health
including those of Asclepius himself. This building
can be accepted as one of the earliest structures
with a dome in Anatolia. |
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Ephesus Yesterday & Today |
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